1. Hill DA, Artis D. Intestinal bacteria and the regulation of immune cell homeostasis. Annu Rev Immunol. 2010; 28:623–67.
Article
2. Qin J, Li R, Raes J, Arumugam M, Burgdorf KS, Manichanh C, et al. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature. 2010; 464:59–65.
Article
3. Cotillard A, Kennedy SP, Kong LC, Prifti E, Pons N, Le Chatelier E, et al. Dietary intervention impact on gut microbial gene richness. Nature. 2013; 500:585–8.
Article
4. Le Chatelier E, Nielsen T, Qin J, Prifti E, Hildebrand F, Falony G, et al. Richness of human gut microbiome correlates with metabolic markers. Nature. 2013; 500:541–6.
Article
5. Turnbaugh PJ, Hamady M, Yatsunenko T, Cantarel BL, Duncan A, Ley RE, et al. A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins. Nature. 2009; 457:480–4.
Article
6. Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Mahowald MA, Magrini V, Mardis ER, Gordon JI. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature. 2006; 444:1027–31.
Article
7. Betrapally NS, Gillevet PM, Bajaj JS. Gut microbiome and liver disease. Transl Res. 2017; 179:49–59.
Article
8. Karlsson FH, Tremaroli V, Nookaew I, Bergstrom G, Behre CJ, Fagerberg B, et al. Gut metagenome in European women with normal, impaired and diabetic glucose control. Nature. 2013; 498:99–103.
Article
9. Aron-Wisnewsky J, Clement K. The gut microbiome, diet, and links to cardiometabolic and chronic disorders. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2016; 12:169–81.
Article
10. Tang WH, Wang Z, Levison BS, Koeth RA, Britt EB, Fu X, et al. Intestinal microbial metabolism of phosphatidylcholine and cardiovascular risk. N Engl J Med. 2013; 368:1575–84.
Article
11. Tang WH, Hazen SL. The gut microbiome and its role in cardiovascular diseases. Circulation. 2017; 135:1008–10.
Article
12. Riazi K, Azhari H, Charette JH, Underwood FE, King JA, Afshar EE, et al. The prevalence and incidence of NAFLD worldwide: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2022; 7:851–61.
Article
13. Rhee EJ. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and diabetes: an epidemiological perspective. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul). 2019; 34:226–33.
Article
14. Tilg H, Moschen AR, Roden M. NAFLD and diabetes mellitus. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017; 14:32–42.
Article
15. Watt MJ, Miotto PM, De Nardo W, Montgomery MK. The liver as an endocrine organ-linking NAFLD and insulin resistance. Endocr Rev. 2019; 40:1367–93.
Article
16. Simonen P, Kotronen A, Hallikainen M, Sevastianova K, Makkonen J, Hakkarainen A, et al. Cholesterol synthesis is increased and absorption decreased in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease independent of obesity. J Hepatol. 2011; 54:153–9.
Article
17. Adams LA, Waters OR, Knuiman MW, Elliott RR, Olynyk JK. NAFLD as a risk factor for the development of diabetes and the metabolic syndrome: an eleven-year follow-up study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2009; 104:861–7.
Article
18. Caussy C, Aubin A, Loomba R. The relationship between type 2 diabetes, NAFLD, and cardiovascular risk. Curr Diab Rep. 2021; 21:15.
Article
19. Anstee QM, Targher G, Day CP. Progression of NAFLD to diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease or cirrhosis. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2013; 10:330–44.
Article
20. Hrncir T, Hrncirova L, Kverka M, Hromadka R, Machova V, Trckova E, et al. Gut microbiota and NAFLD: pathogenetic mechanisms, microbiota signatures, and therapeutic interventions. Microorganisms. 2021; 9:957.
Article
21. Hrncirova L, Machova V, Trckova E, Krejsek J, Hrncir T. Food preservatives induce Proteobacteria dysbiosis in human-microbiota associated Nod2-deficient mice. Microorganisms. 2019; 7:383.
Article
22. Hrncirova L, Hudcovic T, Sukova E, Machova V, Trckova E, Krejsek J, et al. Human gut microbes are susceptible to antimicrobial food additives in vitro. Folia Microbiol (Praha). 2019; 64:497–508.
Article
23. Chassaing B, Van de Wiele T, De Bodt J, Marzorati M, Gewirtz AT. Dietary emulsifiers directly alter human microbiota composition and gene expression ex vivo potentiating intestinal inflammation. Gut. 2017; 66:1414–27.
Article
24. Suez J, Korem T, Zeevi D, Zilberman-Schapira G, Thaiss CA, Maza O, et al. Artificial sweeteners induce glucose intolerance by altering the gut microbiota. Nature. 2014; 514:181–6.
Article
25. Mock K, Lateef S, Benedito VA, Tou JC. High-fructose corn syrup-55 consumption alters hepatic lipid metabolism and promotes triglyceride accumulation. J Nutr Biochem. 2017; 39:32–9.
Article
26. Jensen T, Abdelmalek MF, Sullivan S, Nadeau KJ, Green M, Roncal C, et al. Fructose and sugar: a major mediator of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J Hepatol. 2018; 68:1063–75.
Article
27. Chung M, Ma J, Patel K, Berger S, Lau J, Lichtenstein AH. Fructose, high-fructose corn syrup, sucrose, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease or indexes of liver health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014; 100:833–49.
28. Sobrecases H, Le KA, Bortolotti M, Schneiter P, Ith M, Kreis R, et al. Effects of short-term overfeeding with fructose, fat and fructose plus fat on plasma and hepatic lipids in healthy men. Diabetes Metab. 2010; 36:244–6.
Article
29. Moughaizel M, Dagher E, Jablaoui A, Thorin C, Rhimi M, Desfontis JC, et al. Long-term high-fructose high-fat diet feeding elicits insulin resistance, exacerbates dyslipidemia and induces gut microbiota dysbiosis in WHHL rabbits. PLoS One. 2022; 17:e0264215.
Article
30. Li JM, Yu R, Zhang LP, Wen SY, Wang SJ, Zhang XY, et al. Dietary fructose-induced gut dysbiosis promotes mouse hippocampal neuroinflammation: a benefit of short-chain fatty acids. Microbiome. 2019; 7:98.
Article
31. Maenpaa PH, Raivio KO, Kekomaki MP. Liver adenine nucleotides: fructose-induced depletion and its effect on protein synthesis. Science. 1968; 161:1253–4.
Article
32. Bawden SJ, Stephenson MC, Ciampi E, Hunter K, Marciani L, Macdonald IA, et al. Investigating the effects of an oral fructose challenge on hepatic ATP reserves in healthy volunteers: a (31)P MRS study. Clin Nutr. 2016; 35:645–9.
Article
33. Van den Berghe G. Fructose: metabolism and short-term effects on carbohydrate and purine metabolic pathways. Prog Biochem Pharmacol. 1986; 21:1–32.
34. Lanaspa MA, Sanchez-Lozada LG, Choi YJ, Cicerchi C, Kanbay M, Roncal-Jimenez CA, et al. Uric acid induces hepatic steatosis by generation of mitochondrial oxidative stress: potential role in fructose-dependent and -independent fatty liver. J Biol Chem. 2012; 287:40732–44.
35. Lanaspa MA, Cicerchi C, Garcia G, Li N, Roncal-Jimenez CA, Rivard CJ, et al. Counteracting roles of AMP deaminase and AMP kinase in the development of fatty liver. PLoS One. 2012; 7:e48801.
Article
36. Rao SS, Bhagatwala J. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth: clinical features and therapeutic management. Clin Transl Gastroenterol. 2019; 10:e00078.
Article
37. Jiang W, Wu N, Wang X, Chi Y, Zhang Y, Qiu X, et al. Dysbiosis gut microbiota associated with inflammation and impaired mucosal immune function in intestine of humans with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Sci Rep. 2015; 5:8096.
Article
38. Rahman K, Desai C, Iyer SS, Thorn NE, Kumar P, Liu Y, et al. Loss of junctional adhesion molecule A promotes severe steatohepatitis in mice on a diet high in saturated fat, fructose, and cholesterol. Gastroenterology. 2016; 151:733–46.
Article
39. Roh YS, Seki E. Toll-like receptors in alcoholic liver disease, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and carcinogenesis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2013; 28(Suppl 1):38–42.
Article
40. Sharifnia T, Antoun J, Verriere TG, Suarez G, Wattacheril J, Wilson KT, et al. Hepatic TLR4 signaling in obese NAFLD. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2015; 309:G270–8.
Article
41. Tripathi A, Debelius J, Brenner DA, Karin M, Loomba R, Schnabl B, et al. The gut-liver axis and the intersection with the microbiome. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2018; 15:397–411.
Article
42. Shen F, Zheng RD, Sun XQ, Ding WJ, Wang XY, Fan JG. Gut microbiota dysbiosis in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int. 2017; 16:375–81.
Article
43. Zhu L, Baker SS, Gill C, Liu W, Alkhouri R, Baker RD, et al. Characterization of gut microbiomes in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) patients: a connection between endogenous alcohol and NASH. Hepatology. 2013; 57:601–9.
Article
44. Loomba R, Seguritan V, Li W, Long T, Klitgord N, Bhatt A, et al. Gut microbiome-based metagenomic signature for non-invasive detection of advanced fibrosis in human nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Cell Metab. 2017; 25:1054–62.
Article
45. Hoyles L, Fernandez-Real JM, Federici M, Serino M, Abbott J, Charpentier J, et al. Molecular phenomics and metagenomics of hepatic steatosis in non-diabetic obese women. Nat Med. 2018; 24:1070–80.
Article
46. Raman M, Ahmed I, Gillevet PM, Probert CS, Ratcliffe NM, Smith S, et al. Fecal microbiome and volatile organic compound metabolome in obese humans with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2013; 11:868–75.
Article
47. Hoozemans J, de Brauw M, Nieuwdorp M, Gerdes V. Gut microbiome and metabolites in patients with NAFLD and after bariatric surgery: a comprehensive review. Metabolites. 2021; 11:353.
Article
48. Xia Y, Ren M, Yang J, Cai C, Cheng W, Zhou X, et al. Gut microbiome and microbial metabolites in NAFLD and after bariatric surgery: correlation and causality. Front Microbiol. 2022; 13:1003755.
Article
49. Kim Y, Son D, Kim BK, Kim KH, Seo KW, Jung K, et al. Association between the Blautia/Bacteroides ratio and altered body mass index after bariatric surgery. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul). 2022; 37:475–86.
Article
50. Chen J, Vitetta L. Gut microbiota metabolites in NAFLD pathogenesis and therapeutic implications. Int J Mol Sci. 2020; 21:5214.
Article
51. Briskey D, Heritage M, Jaskowski LA, Peake J, Gobe G, Subramaniam VN, et al. Probiotics modify tight-junction proteins in an animal model of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 2016; 9:463–72.
Article
52. Wagnerberger S, Spruss A, Kanuri G, Stahl C, Schroder M, Vetter W, et al. Lactobacillus casei Shirota protects from fructose-induced liver steatosis: a mouse model. J Nutr Biochem. 2013; 24:531–8.
Article
53. Naito E, Yoshida Y, Makino K, Kounoshi Y, Kunihiro S, Takahashi R, et al. Beneficial effect of oral administration of Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota on insulin resistance in diet-induced obesity mice. J Appl Microbiol. 2011; 110:650–7.
Article
54. Zhao Z, Chen L, Zhao Y, Wang C, Duan C, Yang G, et al. Lactobacillus plantarum NA136 ameliorates nonalcoholic fatty liver disease by modulating gut microbiota, improving intestinal barrier integrity, and attenuating inflammation. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2020; 104:5273–82.
Article
55. Park EJ, Lee YS, Kim SM, Park GS, Lee YH, Jeong DY, et al. Beneficial effects of Lactobacillus plantarum strains on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in high fat/high fructose diet-fed rats. Nutrients. 2020; 12:542.
Article
56. Kim B, Park KY, Ji Y, Park S, Holzapfel W, Hyun CK. Protective effects of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG against dyslipidemia in high-fat diet-induced obese mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2016; 473:530–6.
Article
57. Anderson JW, Gilliland SE. Effect of fermented milk (yogurt) containing Lactobacillus acidophilus L1 on serum cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic humans. J Am Coll Nutr. 1999; 18:43–50.
Article
58. Aller R, De Luis DA, Izaola O, Conde R, Gonzalez Sagrado M, Primo D, et al. Effect of a probiotic on liver aminotransferases in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease patients: a double blind randomized clinical trial. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2011; 15:1090–5.
59. Ferolla SM, Armiliato GN, Couto CA, Ferrari TC. Probiotics as a complementary therapeutic approach in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. World J Hepatol. 2015; 7:559–65.
Article
60. Arellano-Garcia L, Portillo MP, Martinez JA, Milton-Laskibar I. Usefulness of probiotics in the management of NAFLD: evidence and involved mechanisms of action from preclinical and human models. Int J Mol Sci. 2022; 23:3167.
Article
61. Lavekar AS, Raje DV, Manohar T, Lavekar AA. Role of probiotics in the treatment of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a meta-analysis. Euroasian J Hepatogastroenterol. 2017; 7:130–7.
Article
62. Gibson GR, Roberfroid MB. Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: introducing the concept of prebiotics. J Nutr. 1995; 125:1401–12.
Article
63. Vamanu E. Complementary functional strategy for modulation of human gut microbiota. Curr Pharm Des. 2018; 24:4144–9.
Article
64. Zhao Z, Wang C, Zhang L, Zhao Y, Duan C, Zhang X, et al. Lactobacillus plantarum NA136 improves the non-alcoholic fatty liver disease by modulating the AMPK/Nrf2 pathway. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2019; 103:5843–50.
Article
65. Kim DH, Kim H, Jeong D, Kang IB, Chon JW, Kim HS, et al. Kefir alleviates obesity and hepatic steatosis in high-fat diet-fed mice by modulation of gut microbiota and mycobiota: targeted and untargeted community analysis with correlation of biomarkers. J Nutr Biochem. 2017; 44:35–43.
Article
66. Ma YY, Li L, Yu CH, Shen Z, Chen LH, Li YM. Effects of probiotics on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a meta-analysis. World J Gastroenterol. 2013; 19:6911–8.
Article
67. Zhou X, Wang J, Zhou S, Liao J, Ye Z, Mao L. Efficacy of probiotics on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2023; 102:e32734.
Article
68. Craven L, Rahman A, Nair Parvathy S, Beaton M, Silverman J, Qumosani K, et al. Allogenic fecal microbiota transplantation in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease improves abnormal small intestinal permeability: a randomized control trial. Am J Gastroenterol. 2020; 115:1055–65.
Article
69. Xue L, Deng Z, Luo W, He X, Chen Y. Effect of fecal microbiota transplantation on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: a randomized clinical trial. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2022; 12:759306.
Article
70. An P, Wei G, Huang P, Li W, Qi X, Lin Y, et al. A novel non-bile acid FXR agonist EDP-305 potently suppresses liver injury and fibrosis without worsening of ductular reaction. Liver Int. 2020; 40:1655–69.
Article
71. Ubeda M, Lario M, Munoz L, Borrero MJ, Rodriguez-Serrano M, Sanchez-Diaz AM, et al. Obeticholic acid reduces bacterial translocation and inhibits intestinal inflammation in cirrhotic rats. J Hepatol. 2016; 64:1049–57.
Article
72. Younossi ZM, Ratziu V, Loomba R, Rinella M, Anstee QM, Goodman Z, et al. Obeticholic acid for the treatment of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis: interim analysis from a multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2019; 394:2184–96.
73. Kliewer SA, Mangelsdorf DJ. Bile acids as hormones: the FXR-FGF15/19 pathway. Dig Dis. 2015; 33:327–31.
Article
74. Degirolamo C, Sabba C, Moschetta A. Therapeutic potential of the endocrine fibroblast growth factors FGF19, FGF21 and FGF23. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2016; 15:51–69.
Article
75. Harrison SA, Rinella ME, Abdelmalek MF, Trotter JF, Paredes AH, Arnold HL, et al. NGM282 for treatment of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial. Lancet. 2018; 391:1174–85.
Article