Nutr Res Pract.  2011 Aug;5(4):357-364.

Demographic and lifestyle factors and selenium levels in men and women in the U.S.

• Park K
• Rimm E
• Siscovick
• Spiegelman D
• Morris JS
• Mozaffarian D

Abstract

Selenium is an antioxidant trace element linked to cardiovascular disease and cancer. Although diet is a major source, relatively little else is known about independent determinants of selenium levels in free-living humans. In this study, we aimed to investigate the independent demographic, lifestyle, and dietary determinants of selenium levels in 1,997 men and 1,905 women in two large prospective U.S. cohorts. Toenail selenium levels were quantified using neutron activation analysis. Diet, geographic residence, demographic, and environmental factors were assessed by validated self-administered questionnaires. Multivariate generalized linear models were conducted to assess the independent relations of these factors with toenail selenium levels, correcting for measurement error in the diet. In multivariable-adjusted analyses, independent predictors of higher selenium were male gender (6.3% higher levels); living in West and Northern-Midwest U.S. regions (8.9% and 7.4% higher than Southern-Midwest regions, respectively); consumption of beef and bread products (between 0.7 - 2.5% higher per daily serving); and selenium supplement use (6.9% higher than non-users); whereas cigarette smoking (5-10% lower than never smokers) , older age (0.6% lower per 5 years), and consumption of eggs, white rice, dairy products, coffee, and alcohol (between 0.1 to 2.0% lower per daily serving) were associated with lower selenium. Multiple dietary and non-dietary factors independently predicted selenium levels, suggesting that both consumption and non-dietary processes (e.g., related to oxidant status) may affect levels. Significant geographic variation in selenium levels exists in the US.

Keyword

Selenium; toenail; determinants

MeSH Terms

Bread
Cardiovascular Diseases
Coffee
Cohort Studies
Dairy Products
Diet
Eggs
Female
Humans
Life Style
Linear Models
Male
Nails
Neutron Activation Analysis
Ovum
Prospective Studies
Surveys and Questionnaires
Selenium
Smoking
Coffee
Selenium

Figure

• 

  Fig. 1 Selenium levels in men. ug/g in toenails using multivariable generalized linear models adjusted for age, smoking, alcohol, Body Mass Index, physical activity, multivitamin/selenium supplement use, and diet. Average levels were lower but geographic differences similar in US women, not shown.

Reference

1. Rotruck JT, Pope AL, Ganther HE, Swanson AB, Hafeman DG, Hoekstra WG. Selenium: biochemical role as a component of glutathione peroxidase. Science. 1973. 179:588–590.

2. Chu FF, Doroshow JH, Esworthy RS. Expression, characterization, and tissue distribution of a new cellular selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase, GSHPx-GI. J Biol Chem. 1993. 268:2571–2576.

3. Hunter DJ, Morris JS, Chute CG, Kushner E, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Speizer FE, Willett WC. Predictors of selenium concentration in human toenails. Am J Epidemiol. 1990. 132:114–122.

4. Arnaud J, Bertrais S, Roussel AM, Arnault N, Ruffieux D, Favier A, Berthelin S, Estaquio C, Galan P, Czernichow S, Hercberg S. Serum selenium determinants in French adults: the SU.VI.M.AX study. Br J Nutr. 2006. 95:313–320.

5. van den Brandt PA, Goldbohm RA, van't Veer P, Bode P, Hermus RJ, Sturmans F. Predictors of toenail selenium levels in men and women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1993. 2:107–112.

6. Swanson CA, Longnecker MP, Veillon C, Howe M, Levander OA, Taylor PR, McAdam PA, Brown CC, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Selenium intake, age, gender, and smoking in relation to indices of selenium status of adults residing in a seleniferous area. Am J Clin Nutr. 1990. 52:858–862.

7. Satia JA, King IB, Morris JS, Stratton K, White E. Toenail and plasma levels as biomarkers of selenium exposure. Ann Epidemiol. 2006. 16:53–58.

8. Longnecker MP, Stampfer MJ, Morris JS, Spate V, Baskett C, Mason M, Willett WC. A 1-y trial of the effect of high-selenium bread on selenium concentrations in blood and toenails. Am J Clin Nutr. 1993. 57:408–413.

9. Longnecker MP, Stram DO, Taylor PR, Levander OA, Howe M, Veillon C, McAdam PA, Patterson KY, Holden JM, Morris JS, Swanson CA, Willett WC. Use of selenium concentration in whole blood, serum, toenails, or urine as a surrogate measure of selenium intake. Epidemiology. 1996. 7:384–390.

10. Foster LH, Sumar S. Selenium in health and disease: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 1997. 37:211–228.

11. Mayne ST. Antioxidant nutrients and chronic disease: use of biomarkers of exposure and oxidative stress status in epidemiologic research. J Nutr. 2003. 133:933S–940S.

12. Ghayour-Mobarhan M, Taylor A, New SA, Lamb DJ, Ferns GA. Determinants of serum copper, zinc and selenium in healthy subjects. Ann Clin Biochem. 2005. 42:364–375.

13. Hu FB, Bronner L, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Rexrode KM, Albert CM, Hunter D, Manson JE. Fish and omega-3 fatty acid intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women. JAMA. 2002. 287:1815–1821.

14. Mozaffarian D, Ascherio A, Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Siscovick DS, Rimm EB. Interplay between different polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease in men. Circulation. 2005. 111:157–164.

15. Garland M, Morris JS, Rosner BA, Stampfer MJ, Spate VL, Baskett CJ, Willett WC, Hunter DJ. Toenail trace element levels as biomarkers: reproducibility over a 6-year period. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1993. 2:493–497.

16. MacIntosh DL, Williams PL, Hunter DJ, Sampson LA, Morris SC, Willett WC, Rimm EB. Evaluation of a food frequency questionnaire-food composition approach for estimating dietary intake of inorganic arsenic and methylmercury. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1997. 6:1043–1050.

17. Joshi A, Douglass CW, Kim HD, Joshipura KJ, Park MC, Rimm EB, Carino MJ, Garcia RI, Morris JS, Willett WC. The relationship between amalgam restorations and mercury levels in male dentists and nondental health professionals. J Public Health Dent. 2003. 63:52–60.

18. Morris JS, Stampfer MJ, Willett W. Dietary selenium in humans toenails as an indicator. Biol Trace Elem Res. 1983. 5:529–537.

19. Rosner B, Hennekens CH, Kass EH, Miall WE. Age-specific correlation analysis of longitudinal blood pressure data. Am J Epidemiol. 1977. 106:306–313.

20. Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Chute CG, Litin LB, Willett WC. Validity of self-reported waist and hip circumferences in men and women. Epidemiology. 1990. 1:466–473.

21. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Ascherio A, Rexrode KM, Willett WC, Manson JE. Physical activity and risk of stroke in women. JAMA. 2000. 283:2961–2967.

22. Feskanich D, Rimm EB, Giovannucci EL, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Litin LB, Willett WC. Reproducibility and validity of food intake measurements from a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. J Am Diet Assoc. 1993. 93:790–796.

23. Salvini S, Hunter DJ, Sampson L, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rosner B, Willett WC. Food-based validation of a dietary questionnaire: the effects of week-to-week variation in food consumption. Int J Epidemiol. 1989. 18:858–867.

24. Willett WC. Nutritional Epidemiology. 1998. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

25. Beaton GH, Milner J, Corey P, McGuire V, Cousins M, Stewart E, de Ramos M, Hewitt D, Grambsch PV, Kassim N, Little JA. Sources of variance in 24-hour dietary recall data: implications for nutrition study design and interpretation. Am J Clin Nutr. 1979. 32:2546–2559.

26. Chimonas S, Rozario NM, Rothman DJ. Show us the money: lessons in transparency from state pharmaceutical marketing disclosure laws. Health Serv Res. 2010. 45:98–114.

27. Shi B, Spallholz JE. Bioavailability of selenium from raw and cooked ground beef assessed in selenium-deficient Fischer rats. J Am Coll Nutr. 1994. 13:95–101.

28. Djujić IS, Jozanov-Stankov ON, Milovac M, Janković V, Djermanović V. Bioavailability and possible benefits of wheat intake naturally enriched with selenium and its products. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2000. 77:273–285.

29. Ceriello A. Acute hyperglycaemia and oxidative stress generation. Diabet Med. 1997. 14:S45–S49.

30. Hu Y, Block G, Norkus EP, Morrow JD, Dietrich M, Hudes M. Relations of glycemic index and glycemic load with plasma oxidative stress markers. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006. 84:70–76. quiz 266-7.

31. Holben DH, Smith AM. The diverse role of selenium within selenoproteins: a review. J Am Diet Assoc. 1999. 99:836–843.

32. Brown KM, Arthur JR. Selenium, selenoproteins and human health: a review. Public Health Nutr. 2001. 4:593–599.

33. Frei B, Forte TM, Ames BN, Cross CE. Gas phase oxidants of cigarette smoke induce lipid peroxidation and changes in lipoprotein properties in human blood plasma. Protective effects of ascorbic acid. Biochem J. 1991. 277:133–138.

34. Morrow JD, Frei B, Longmire AW, Gaziano JM, Lynch SM, Shyr Y, Strauss WE, Oates JA, Roberts LJ 2nd. Increase in circulating products of lipid peroxidation (F2-isoprostanes) in smokers. Smoking as a cause of oxidative damage. N Engl J Med. 1995. 332:1198–1203.

35. Keaney JF Jr, Larson MG, Vasan RS, Wilson PW, Lipinska I, Corey D, Massaro JM, Sutherland P, Vita JA, Benjamin EJ. Framingham Study. Obesity and systemic oxidative stress: clinical correlates of oxidative stress in the Framingham Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003. 23:434–439.

36. Reilly M, Delanty N, Lawson JA, FitzGerald GA. Modulation of oxidant stress in vivo in chronic cigarette smokers. Circulation. 1996. 94:19–25.

37. Lloyd-Jones DM, Liu K, Colangelo LA, Yan LL, Klein L, Loria CM, Lewis CE, Savage P. Consistently stable or decreased body mass index in young adulthood and longitudinal changes in metabolic syndrome components: the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study. Circulation. 2007. 115:1004–1011.

38. Erden-Inal M, Sunal E, Kanbak G. Age-related changes in the glutathione redox system. Cell Biochem Funct. 2002. 20:61–66.

39. Finkel T, Holbrook NJ. Oxidants, oxidative stress and the biology of ageing. Nature. 2000. 408:239–247.

40. Meagher EA, Barry OP, Burke A, Lucey MR, Lawson JA, Rokach J, FitzGerald GA. Alcohol-induced generation of lipid peroxidation products in humans. J Clin Invest. 1999. 104:805–813.

41. Barden A, Zilkens RR, Croft K, Mori T, Burke V, Beilin LJ, Puddey IB. A reduction in alcohol consumption is associated with reduced plasma F2-isoprostanes and urinary 20-HETE excretion in men. Free Radic Biol Med. 2007. 42:1730–1735.

42. Niskar AS, Paschal DC, Kieszak SM, Flegal KM, Bowman B, Gunter EW, Pirkle JL, Rubin C, Sampson EJ, McGeehin M. Serum selenium levels in the US population: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2003. 91:1–10.

43. Morris JS, Spate VL, Ngwenyama RA. Determinants of selenium in the toenail biomonitor. J Radioanal Nucl Chem. 2006. 269:283–290.

44. Morris JS, Rohan T, Soskolne CL, Jain M, Horsman TL, Spate VL, Baskett CK, Mason MM, Nichols TA. Selenium status and cancer mortality in subjects residing in four Canadian provinces. J Radioanal Nucl Chem. 2001. 249:421–427.

45. Sartori-Valinotti JC, Iliescu R, Fortepiani LA, Yanes LL, Reckelhoff JF. Sex differences in oxidative stress and the impact on blood pressure control and cardiovascular disease. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2007. 34:938–945.

46. Kubota J, Allaway WH, Carter DL, Gary EE, Lazar VA. Selenium in crops in the United States in relation to selenium-responsive diseases of animals. J Agric Food Chem. 1967. 15:448–453.

47. Spallholz JE, Martin JL, Ganther HE. Selenium in Biology and Medicine. 1981. Westport, CT: AVI Publishing Company.